DA PAM 550-99 Yugoslavia: A Country Study 1992. "Research completed December 1990." Contents Foreword iii Acknowledgments v Preface xiii Country Profile xv Introduction xxiii Chapter 1. Historical Setting 1 Charles Sudetic PRE-SLAV HISTORY 4 HISTORIES OF THE YUGOSLAV PEOPLES TO WORLD WAR I 6 The Slovenes 7 The Croats and Their Territories JO The Serbs and Serbia, Vojvodina, and Montenegro . . 16 Bosnia and Hercegovina 22 Macedonia 25 THE BALKAN WARS, WORLD WAR I, AND THE FORMATION OF YUGOSLAVIA, 1912-18 26 The Balkan Wars and World War I 27 Formation of the South Slav State 28 The Kingdom of Yugoslavia 29 Political Life in the 1920s 31 Economic Life and Foreign Policy in the 1920s 32 The Royal Dictatorship 33 The Regency 35 The Sporazum, Tripartite Pact, and Outbreak of World War II 36 YUGOSLAVIA IN WORLD WAR II, 1941-45 37 Partition and Terror 37 The Resistance Movement 39 POSTWAR YUGOSLAVIA 42 Communist Takeover and Consolidation 42 The Yugoslav-Soviet Rift 45 Introduction of Socialist Self-Management 47 Nonalignment and Yugoslav-Soviet Rapprochement . . 49 Reforms of the 1960s 50 Unrest in Croatia and Its Consequences in the 1970s 53 The 1974 Constitution 54 Chapter 2. The Society and Its Environment 59 Charles Sudetic GEOGRAPHY AND POPULATION 63 Topography 63 Drainage Systems 64 Climate 64 Pollution 67 Population 67 YUGOSLAVIA'S PEOPLES 69 Ethnographic History 69 Ethnic Composition 70 Languages 72 The Yugoslav Nations 73 SOCIAL GROUPS 89 The Peasantry 89 The Workers 92 The Political Elite and Intellectuals 94 The Family 97 URBANIZATION AND HOUSING 102 Housing 102 Urban Problems 104 Guest Workers 104 RELIGION 106 Demography and Distribution 107 Eastern Orthodoxy 108 Roman Catholicism 110 Islam 112 Other Faiths 113 EDUCATION 113 History of Yugoslav Education 113 Primary Schools 114 Secondary Education 115 Higher Education 116 HEALTH CARE AND SOCIAL WELFARE 116 Disease and Mortality 116 Development of the Health Care System 116 The Contemporary Health and Welfare Systems .... 117 Chapter 3. The Economy 121 Malinda K. Goodrich ECONOMIC HISTORY 124 World War II and Recovery 124 Application of Stalinist Economics 124 The First Five- Year Plan 125 Launching Socialist Self-Management 127 The "Perspective" Five-Year Plan 127 Overhaul in the 1960s 128 The Economic Reform of 1965 129 Adjustments in the 1970s 130 THE ECONOMIC MANAGEMENT MECHANISM 131 Socialist Self- Management 131 Capital Ownership and the Market 132 Planning and Pricing 134 Trade Unions 135 Government Revenue and Spending 136 Banking 136 STRUCTURE OF THE ECONOMY 138 Labor and Unemployment 138 Industry 139 Agriculture 144 Energy and Mineral Resources 146 Transportation and Telecommunications 150 FOREIGN TRADE 152 Historical Background 152 Exports and Imports 156 Trading Partners 157 Guest Workers and Tourism 160 Foreign Exchange 162 MANAGING THE CRISIS OF THE 1980s 163 Inflation and Foreign Debt 163 Living Standards 164 Regional Disparities 164 THE REFORMS OF 1990 165 Chapter 4. Government and Politics 169 Glenn E. Curtis POLITICAL EVOLUTION AFTER 1945 172 Breaking with the Soviet Union 173 The 1963 Constitution 174 Post-Rankovic Diversification 175 Political Innovation and the 1974 Constitution 176 The Early Post-Tito Years 180 Reform in the 1980s 180 The Leadership Crisis 183 GOVERNMENT STRUCTURE 184 Federal Assembly 184 Federal Executive Council 185 State Presidency 187 Court System 189 Local Government and the Communes 190 NONGOVERNMENTAL POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS ... 192 League of Communists of Yugoslavia 192 Socialist Alliance of Working People of Yugoslavia ... 197 Trade Unions 198 Youth League of Yugoslavia 199 Veterans' Association 199 REGIONAL POLITICAL ISSUES 200 Slovenia 200 Serbia 202 Kosovo 204 Vojvodina 206 Croatia 206 Montenegro 208 Bosnia and Hercegovina 209 Macedonia 210 THE PUBLIC AND POLITICAL DECISION MAKING ... 211 Djilas, Praxis, and Intellectual Repression 211 Intellectual Opposition Groups 212 The Media 213 Censorship 214 FOREIGN POLICY 215 The Government Foreign Policy Mechanism 216 Nonalignment 216 The Soviet Union 218 The United States 218 European Neighbors 219 The Middle East and Western Europe 220 THE POLITICAL AGENDA FOR THE 1990s 221 Chapter 5. National Security 225 Karl Wheeler Soper DEVELOPMENT OF THE ARMED FORCES 228 Early Development 228 World War II 229 Postwar Development 231 NATIONAL DEFENSE 233 Threat Perception 233 Military Doctrine 235 Strategy and Tactics 236 DEFENSE ORGANIZATION 237 Government Organization for Defense 238 The Military and the Party 241 Armed Services 243 Territorial Defense Forces 250 MILITARY MANPOWER 253 The Military and Society 253 Recruitment and Service Obligations 257 Military Training and Education 259 Military Life 261 Ranks, Insignia, and Uniforms 262 DEFENSE AND THE NATIONAL ECONOMY 265 Military Budget 266 Arms Procurement 267 FOREIGN MILITARY RELATIONS 272 Warship Visits 273 Arms Sales 273 Military Exchanges 274 INTERNAL SECURITY 275 Dissidence 276 Courts, Detention, and Punishment 278 Internal Security Forces 280 Organization for Internal Security 282 The Military in Domestic Peacekeeping 283 Appendix. Tables 287 Bibliography 303 Glossary 321 Index 325 List of Figures 1 Administrative Divisions of Yugoslavia, 1990 xxii 2 Military Frontier Province Between the Habsburg and Ottoman Empires, ca. 1600-1800 14 3 Expansion of Serbia, 1804-1913 20 4 South Slav Territories at Formation of Yugoslav State, 1918-19 30 5 Partition of Yugoslavia, 1941 38 6 Topography and Drainage 66 7 Ethnic Groups 72 8 Principal Languages and Religions 74 9 Gross National Product (GNP) by Sector, 1975 and 1988 142 10 Industrial Centers and Natural Resources, 1990 148 11 Transportation and Pipeline Systems, 1990 154 12 The Delegate System of Elections, 1990 178 13 Evolution of the Federal Parliament as of 1990 186 14 Organization of the Federal Executive Council and Administrative Agencies, 1990 188 15 Terrain Considerations in Military Operations 236 16 Organization of the Armed Forces, 1990 238 17 Command and Control of the Armed Forces, 1990 242 18 Military Ranks and Insignia, 1990 264 Digitized by The Defense Technical Information Center (DTIC).